China launched its first Yaogan-42 satellite late Tuesday, adding to the country’s growing military satellite reconnaissance capabilities. A Long March 2D rocket lifted off from Xichang Satellite Launch Center at 6:56 p.m. Eastern (2256 UTC) April 2. The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC) announced launch success within the hour. CASC’s statement also revealed the previously unknown payload to be Yaogan-42 (01) (“remote sensing-42 (01)”). The satellite was later tracked by the U.S. Space Force’s 18th Space Defense Squadron (SDS) in a roughly 500-kilometer-altitude orbit inclined by 35 degrees. Both Yaogan-42 (02) and its Long March 2D launcher were developed and provided by CASC’s Shanghai Academy of Spaceflight Technology (SAST). Neither CASC nor Chinese state media provided any details regarding the classified satellite. These statements omitted the usual general description of Yaogan satellites. Some Yaogan satellites are described as being for purposes including land survey, crop yield estimation, environmental management, meteorological warning and forecasting, and disaster prevention and reduction. Uses of others include “electromagnetic environment detection and related technical tests.”
A Long March 2D lifts off from Xichang spaceport on April 2 (UTC), 2024, carrying the Yaogan-42 (01) satellite. Credit: Ourspace
Outside observers assess Yaogan series satellites to be designated for military and civilian purposes.
The various series of Yaogan satellites are understood to include optical imaging, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellites. This combination provides high-resolution imagery and all-weather and all-day and night imagery, along with the collection of electronic signals from radar, communication systems and other electronic devices, with coverage of both land and sea.
The vast majority of Yaogan satellites operate in a series of low Earth and sun-synchronous orbits. Some groups of Yaogan satellites, such as Yaogan-31, could be analogous to U.S. Department of Defense Naval Ocean Surveillance System (NOSS) satellite triplets. Other groups, in orbits with inclinations of 35 degrees, ang spaced 60 or 120 degrees apart, provide near constant surveillance over areas of security concern close to China.
Additionally China launched the Yaogan-41 satellite towards geosynchronous orbit in late 2023. That satellite launched on a Long March 5, China’s largest operational rocket. The mission A used a new, elongated 18.5-meter-long, 5.2-meter-diameter payload fairing.
Tuesday’s launch was China’s 15th orbital mission of 2024. The country is aiming to launch around 100 times across 2024. Around 70 will be conducted by CASC, with China’s commercial launch service providers planning around 30 launches.
Commercial activity will include the new Tianlong-3 from Space Pioneer. The 71-meter-long rocket will be capable of lifting 17 tons of payload to low Earth orbit, or 14 tons to 500-kilometer sun-synchronous orbit, according to the firm. The rocket would become China’s second most capable rocket, behind the Long March 5. It is intended to have a reusable first stage in the future.
SAST plans to launch its new, 3.8-meter-diameter Long March 12, previously referred to as the “XLV,” during 2024.
China launched the TJS-11 classified satellite early Friday as the country continues to build its geostationary capabilities. A Long March 5 lifted off from Wenchang Satellite Launch Center on Hainan island at 6:30 a.m. Eastern (1130 UTC), Feb. 23. The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corp., (CASC), announced launch success just under an hour after launch. The announcement also provided the first official statement on the payload: TJS-11 (Tongxin Jishu Shiyan-11). The satellite is described as being mainly used to carry out multi-band, high-speed satellite communication technology verification. Neither CASC nor Chinese state media provided further details on the satellite which belongs to a series of classified geosynchronous satellites for the Chinese military. TJS satellites are thought by observers to serve a range of purposes including early warning, signals intelligence and more. Buildup to the mission was shrouded in secrecy, despite the open location of the coastal launch. There were no official reports of the rollout of the rocket, in contrast to previous missions. Notably it is the shortest time between launches of the Long March 5, at 70 days since the launch of Yaogan-41. Like the Yaogan-41 launch, the TJS-11 mission used an elongated 18.5-meter-long, 5.2-meter-diameter payload fairing. Standard fairings are 12.3 meters long. This is the first TJS satellite launched on a Long March 5, China’s most powerful launch vehicle. The Long March 5 can loft 14,000 kilograms into geosynchronous transfer orbit. The launcher is required to launch China’s largest satellite bus, the DFH-5.
The satellite series and its activities has caught the attention of observers in recent years. For instance, China’s TJS-3 (Tongxin Jishu Shiyan-3) satellite launched in 2018 and released a payload of unstated purposes.
Assessments of the pair’s maneuvers suggest the spacecraft moved in concert and carried out operations including spoofing. This involves coordinated maneuvers at certain times in an attempt to confuse rivals’ space tracking networks. Orbital data reveals that TJS-3 has been making close approaches to American satellites.
The U.S. Space Force recently stated its growing concern at China’s advancing capabilities in geostationary orbit (GEO). Assets of note include the Ludi Tance-4 (01) L-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite and the Yaogan-41 optical satellite, with an estimated resolution of 2.5 meters. China launched the pair separately in the second half of 2023.
“Paired with data from other Chinese surveillance satellites, Yaogan-41 could provide China an unprecedented ability to identify and track car-sized objects throughout the entire Indo-Pacific region and put at risk numerous U.S. and allied naval and air assets operating in the region,” Clayton Swope, a former U.S. intelligence official and now a senior fellow at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), said Jan. 30.
Furthermore, a Long March 7A rocket launched the mystery TJS-10 satellite towards GEO in November last year.
The launch of TJS-11 was the seventh flight of the Long March 5. It was also China’s ninth orbital mission of 2024. CASC has yet to provide an outline for its overall launch activities for 2024, in contrast to previous years. China launched a national record 67 times last year with one failure.
Known major activities include Shenzhou missions to the Tiangong space station and the pioneering Chang’e-6 lunar far side sample return mission. The latter mission will fly on the next Long March 5. Launch is expected in May, following the launch of the requisite Queqiao-2 relay satellite on a Long March 8 next month.
Chinese commercial launch providers are expected to continue to build on a breakthrough 2023. The debut of new liquid-propellent launch vehicles including the Tianlong-3 (Space Pioneer), Nebula-1 (Deep Blue Aerospace) and Pallas-1 (Galactic Energy) expected in the second half of 2024.
China launched its Einstein Probe early Tuesday to detect X-ray emissions from violent, fleeting cosmic phenomena using novel lobster eye-inspired optics. A Long March 2C rocket lifted off from Xichang Satellite Launch Center in southwestern China at 2:03 a.m. (0703 UTC), Jan. 9. The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corp. (CASC) confirmed launch success within the hour. The Einstein Probe (EP) is part of growing Chinese strategic space science efforts. The spacecraft will spend at least three years observing distant, violent interactions such as tidal disruption events—in which stars are pulled apart by supermassive black holes—supernovae, and detect and localize the high-energy, electromagnetic counterparts to gravitational wave events. By picking up soft band X-ray emissions from stars being ripped apart by massive black holes, the probe could provide new insights into how stellar matter falls into black holes and the complex and rare phenomena of formations of jets of ionized matter emitted by the events. The 1,450-kilogram EP spacecraft will operate in a 600-kilometer altitude, 29 degree inclination orbit. From there it will observe the sky with a Wide-field X-ray Telescope (WXT). WXT uses cutting edge “lobster eye” optics to allow the probe to view X-ray events more deeply and widely than previously possible. It follows a demonstration of a novel lobster eye optics module mission launched late 2022.
WXT combines 12 of the modules tested in 2022 to provide a field of view of 3,600 square degrees. The instrument uses a reflection technique, inspired by lobsters’ eyes, consisting of parallel square pores arranged on a sphere. The multitudes of square tubes guide X-rays down to a CMOS light detector.
The European Space Agency contributed to the mission with support for the testing and calibrating of the detectors and optical elements of the WXT.
ESA ground stations will also be involved in data download from EP. The mission will also utilize China’s Beidou navigation satellite constellation to allow rapid relay of alert data to the ground.
“The strength of Einstein Probe is to observe almost the entire night sky in about 5 hours with great sensitivity, thanks to the lobster-eye technique,” Erik Kuulkers, ESA Project Scientist, told SpaceNews. “It is thus able to catch any unpredictable transient event in X-ray light.”
“Powered by tumultuous cosmic events, X-ray light from astronomical sources is very unpredictable. Yet, it carries fundamental information about some of the most enigmatic objects and phenomena in our Universe,” Kuulkers explains.
“X-rays are associated with collisions between neutron stars, supernova explosions, matter falling onto black holes or hyper-dense stars, or high-energy particles being spewed out from discs of blazing material circling such exotic and mysterious objects.”
EP features onboard data processing and autonomous followup capabilities. This means the probe’s Follow-up X-ray Telescope (FXT)—a narrower view, yet more sensitive instrument developed in collaboration with Europe—can be quickly brought to bear after WXT detects an X-ray event.
Kuulkers adds that by enabling scientists to promptly study these short-lived events, EP will help identify the origin of many of the gravitational wave impulses that are being observed on Earth thanks to the emerging field of gravitational wave astronomy.
Kuulkers states that ESA will get access to 10% of the data generated by EP in return for the agency’s contributions to the mission. Data will be distributed to the European Einstein Probe Science Team members.
“Their interest is diverse, from auroral emission on Jupiter, to star-planet Interactions through X-ray observations, to outbursts on isolated neutron stars or in binary stars with a neutron star companion, and to the unstable swallowing of matter by supermassive black hole in other galaxies.”
EP could also provide insight into other phenomena including magnetars, active galactic nuclei, red shifted gamma-ray bursts, and the interactions between comets and solar wind ions.
China began launching dedicated space science missions in 2015 with its DAMPE dark matter probe. The mission was part of the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ (CAS) Strategic Priority Program (SPP). EP was approved in 2017 as part of a second phase of the SPP.
A broader, third round of SPP missions are currently under consideration by CAS. Proposals include a Venus orbiter, a constellation of lunar small sats, exoplanet-hunting telescopes, an asteroid sample return and more. Final selections have however been delayed without explanations.
The Sino-Franco Space-based multi-band astronomical Variable Objects Monitor (SVOM) is also planned for launch in Spring 2024.
China sent the classified Yaogan-41 optical satellite towards the geostationary belt Friday using the country’s largest launch vehicle. The sixth Long March 5 rocket lifted off from the coastal Wenchang Satellite Launch Center at 8:41 a.m. Eastern (1341 UTC) Dec. 15. The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corp. (CASC) announced launch success around an hour later. CASC revealed the payload to be the Yaogan-41 (“remote sensing-41”) satellite. A new, elongated 18.5-meter-long, 5.2-meter-diameter payload fairing shrouded the spacecraft. Previous fairings were 12.3 meters long. CASC revealed that its China Academy of Space Technology (CAST) subsidiary built Yaogan-41 but provided no images nor further details. State news agency Xinhua described the satellite as an optical remote sensing satellite. “The satellite will be used in land survey, crop yield estimation, environmental management, meteorological warning and forecasting, and comprehensive disaster prevention and reduction,” Xinhua stated. Outside observers however assess Yaogan series satellites to be designated for military purposes. The classified nature of the mission suggests Yaogan-41 is for at least partial military use.
The sixth Long March 5 lifts off from Wenchang, Dec. 15, sending Yaogan-41 into GTO. Credit: Ourspace
U.S. Space Force space domain awareness cataloged the spacecraft in a 195 by 35,815-kilometer orbit inclined by 19.51 degrees.
The successful launch adds to growing Chinese on-orbit remote sensing capabilities. Should Yaogan-41 take up a position in geostationary orbit, at about 35,786 kilometers above the equator, it will remain in a fixed position relative to the Earth’s surface. This will allow it to conduct continuous observation of the same geographic area.
This vantage point would allow it to constantly view about one-third of the Earth’s surface. Geostationary optical data would be useful for security, meteorology, climate studies and environmental monitoring purposes.
The mission could be a military follow-up to the civilian Gaofen-4 satellite launched in 2015. The Gaofen-4 GEO optical satellite launched on the much smaller Long March 3B and provides 50-meter-resolution images.
CAST produces the DFH-5 large satellite bus for GEO communications and remote sensing. Its size and mass requires the Long March 5—which can carry 14,000 kg to GTO—to launch it. The DFH-5 Shijian-20 satellite has a mass of up to 8,000 kilograms. DFH-5 satellites have a lifetime of up to 15 years.
The Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics (CIOMP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) has produced four-meter-diameter aspheric silicon carbide (SiC) mirrors. SiC mirrors actively serve in space remote sensing.
CIOMP is also involved in developing Xuntian, a Hubble-class space telescope, expected to join the Tiangong space station in orbit in 2025.
In August CASC launched a geosynchronous orbit radar satellite, further adding to its GEO observation capabilities.
The Long March 5 launched for the first time in late 2016. Its second flight in 2017 failed. The rocket was grounded for 900 days as further testing setbacks required a redesign of troublesome turbopumps. The rocket has since successfully launched Shijian-20, China’s first independent interplanetary mission—the Tianwen-1 orbiter and rover mission to Mars—and the 2020 Chang’e-5 lunar sample return mission.
The five-meter-diameter, 874-ton rocket is currently China’s largest. Its 5B low Earth orbit variant constructed the country’s space station. The Long March 5 is also the basis for the under-development Long March 10, which will use upgraded versions of its YF-100 kerosene-liquid engines and three five-meter-diameter cores.
The Yaogan-41 launch followed a day after China sent its experimental reusable spacecraft into orbit for the third time. The spacecraft entered a 333 to 348 kilometer altitude orbit, inclined at 50 degrees.
Friday’s launch was China’s 61st of 2023, with worldwide orbital launches numbering close to 200. Notable Chinese launches include crew and cargo missions to Tiangong, satellite internet test satellites and the first commercial liquid propellant launches.
CASC aimed to launch more than 60 times this year but, with commercial launch providers accounting for 15 launches, appears to be falling someway short of this stated goal. However CASC has not suffered a launch failure since 2020.
China launched the first of a new series of Haiyang ocean observation satellites late Wednesday. A Long March 2C rocket lifted off into clear skies above Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center at 10:55 p.m. Eastern, Nov. 15 (0355 UTC, Nov. 16). The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC) announced launch success within an hour of liftoff, also revealing the payload to be Haiyang-3 (01). Haiyang-3 (01) will operate in a dawn-dusk sun-synchronous orbit. It will provide all-weather ocean observation using an X-band SAR payload over a planned mission lifetime of eight years. CASC says the new high-precision ocean water color observation satellite will target various water bodies around the world using multiple detection methods, providing insights into various environmental and biological processes. It will be able to provide continuous dynamic monitoring of water color, water temperature, sea ice and other variables, to deliver timely remote sensing information. The Haiyang-3 series will complement the Haiyang-2 satellites with SAR observations. The earlier series focus on variables including wind speed, sea level and sea surface temperature. The satellite was developed by the China Academy of Space Technology (CAST). It will be operated by China’s National Satellite Ocean Application Service (NSOAS).
Ocean monitoring satellites are valuable for providing data for weather models for forecasting and monitoring climate change. They also deliver information helpful for tracking pollution and marine navigation and safety.
The Haiyang-3 (01 launch was China’s 53rd orbital launch of the year. CASC stated early in the year it would aim to launch more than 60 times, and has so far completed 39 launches.
Galactic Energy, a commercial launch service provider, announced Thursday that it would soon resume launches of its Ceres-1 solid rocket. The company had suffered its first failure in late September. Galactic Energy enjoyed a run of nine consecutive successful launches before the setback.
The company released results of its investigation into the failure in late October. The report stated that abnormal ablation of a first stage engine nozzle occurred, causing the rocket to lose attitude control just over a minute into the flight.
China conducted a pair of launches last week to replenish its Beidou navigation system and send science and radar tech test satellites into orbit. A Long March 2C rocket lifted off at 4 a.m. Eastern May 21 from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center in the Gobi Desert. Aboard were the Macau Science Satellite 1A and 1B, designed to study the Earth’s magnetic field, and the Luojia-2 (01), a Ka-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) test satellite for Wuhan University. Macau Science Satellite 1A carries payloads for measuring the Earth’s magnetic field while 1B features high-energy particle detectors and solar X-ray instruments. The pair will provide complementary observations to those made by ESA’s Swarm satellites and the Sino-Italian seismo-electromagnetic satellite, Zhangheng-1. The satellites will also monitor the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA), a weak spot in Earth’s magnetic field which impacts the operations of spacecraft. The platform for satellite 1A was developed by DFH Satellite under the China Academy of Space Technology (CAST), the main satellite-making arm of China’s main space contractor, CASC, while 1B was developed by Northwestern Polytechnical University. The payloads were developed by the Macau University of Science and Technology (MUST). Luojia-2 (01) is testing multi-angle and video radar imaging, with a highest resolution of 0.5 meters in spotlight imaging mode. It will also test signal enhancement and integration of remote sensing imaging, meteorological detection and water conservancy applications, according to Chinese media reports. It continues a surge in SAR developments in China.
A Long March 2C rocket ignites at Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center, May 21, 2023, carrying science and SAR satellites to orbit. Credit: OurSpace
The 353-kilogram Luojia-2 was developed by Wuhan University. The first satellite, Luojia-1, launched in June 2018 and had a mass of 20 kilograms.
The launch of the satellites was facilitated by the China Great Wall Industry Corp. (CGWIC), another CASC subsidiary, which is authorized to provide commercial launch services, as well as satellites and engage in international space cooperation.
Prior to this, a Long March 3B lifted off from Xichang Satellite Launch Center in southwest China at 10:49 p.m. Eastern, May 16. Aboard was the 56th satellite for China’s Beidou navigation and positioning system, and is headed for geostationary orbit.
It is the first backup satellite for the Beidou system, which was completed in 2020. The new satellite is part of an overall aim to improve the system’s availability, stability, short message communication capacity and positioning precision.
The launches were China’s 19th and 20th of 2023 so far. CASC plans more than 60 launches this year, while commercial actors could add more than 20 orbital missions, according to announced plans.
A Long March 2F rocket was rolled out at Jiuquan May 22 ahead of launch of the Shenzhou-16 crewed mission. That launch to the Tiangong space station could take place as soon as May 27. China earlier this month sent the Tianzhou-6 cargo spacecraft to Tiangong to provide supplies, propellant, science experiments and equipment to Tiangong.
Commercial company Landspace also recently delivered its second Zhuque-2 methalox to Jiuquan.
China is preparing to launch its first satellites for a national low Earth orbit broadband megaconstellation to challenge SpaceX’s Starlink. A Long March 5B rocket will be equipped with a Yuanzheng-2 second stage for the first time and launched from the coastal Wenchang spaceport in the second half of the year. The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC), the country’s main space contractor, stated in early March that the new Long March 5B and upper stage configuration would be used to launch satellites for a LEO satellite network. China is developing its plans to deploy a 13,000-satellite low Earth orbit (LEO) broadband megaconstellation, sometimes referred to as “Guowang,” or national network, to rival Starlink and other Western ventures. The project will have ramifications for international competition to secure customers for satellite communications, international infrastructure, space debris and for the use of, and coordination in, LEO. It may also have implications for commercial space development in China. The China Academy of Space Technology (CAST), a major subsidiary of CASC, and the Innovation Academy for Microsatellites (IAMCAS) under the Chinese Academy of Sciences, are understood to be two entities contracted to manufacture satellites for Guowang. IAMCAS is expected to deliver its first 30 satellites for the project by the end of the year. Other and potentially commercial setups could also be involved in the project. China has greatly increased its small satellite manufacturing capacity in recent years, with a number of entities each now capable of producing hundreds of satellites per year. Other actors include GalaxySpace and the state-owned China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC). The former launched six LEO communications test satellites last year.
The fourth Long March 5B rocket lifts off from Wenchang carrying the Mengtian module, Oct. 31, 2022. Credit: Ourspace
CASC’s main rocket-making arm is meanwhile preparing the Long March 5B rocket for a “high-density launch stage to meet the country’s needs for large-scale and rapid access to space.”
This includes ramping up production of required kerosene-liquid oxygen engines for the launch vehicle’s side boosters.
The Long March 5B rocket was earlier used to send the country’s three modules directly into orbit to construct the Tiangong space station. The upper stage would instead allow for multiple satellites to be injected into various orbits.
The earlier launches saw the 30-meter-long, roughly 23-ton dry mass first stages make high-profile, uncontrolled reentries after reaching orbital velocity. It is possible but unknown if the use of YZ-2 upper stage will allow for the first stage to remain suborbital land within a targeted drop zone.
The State Administration of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense (SASTIND) published a notice on the management of civil space launch projects in early March.
It states that the last stage of a launch vehicle should be deorbited according to regulations after taking passivation and other measures. Satellites and spacecraft should be actively deorbited when their design life expires according to their license, the points of the notice state.
A number of Chinese commercial launch companies have meanwhile stated their aim to secure contracts to launch satellites for the Guowang project. This has apparently been reflected in newer companies looking to build medium and large launch vehicles earlier in their development.
The earliest commercial launch companies emerging in China after a 2014 national policy shift first looked to develop light-lift launchers targeting contracts from other private and commercial companies looking to reach space.
China now appears to be looking to Guowang and the newly-completed Tiangong space station to provide opportunities for commercial space firms.
Globally, megaconstellations appear set to be an issue of strong competition and contention in the near future.
U.S. space internet companies have expressed concerns over the potential competitive threat from a Chinese LEO constellation with strong government backing. A report published in December by the Center for Strategic and International Studies stated that the development means the United States “could lose its competitive edge.”
Its deployment could mean that western operators find it more difficult to compete internationally, particularly in countries with political ties to China.
China’s military has meanwhile claimed that SpaceX has intended for Starlink to be used for military purposes in the wake of Ukraine’s defense against the invasion of Russia. CASC’s chairman Wu Yansheng said late last year that he believes the U.S. to be restarting great power competition. He claims the U.S. is seeking to seize strategic resources including specific orbits, locations and radio frequencies.
China added its initially civilian Gaofen Earth observation series Friday with the launch of the classified optical geostationary Gaofen-13 (02) satellite. A Long March 3B rocket lifted off from the hill-surrounded Xichang Satellite Launch Center at 4:33 a.m. Eastern, March 17. The launch successfully sent the Gaofen-13 (02) satellite into geosynchronous transfer orbit, the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corp. (CASC), announced. The payload was only revealed after launch, with speculation that the Long March 3B would carry a ChinaSat communications or Beidou navigation satellite. CASC provided no details of the satellite’s capabilities, stating only that the optical remote sensing satellite is a high-orbit, high-resolution Earth observation technology satellite with great significance to the development of China’s space technology. The mission patch features a galloping horse behind a Long March 3B rocket. The Gaofen-13 (02) (gaofen means high resolution) satellite is nominally part of the civilian China High-resolution Earth Observation System (CHEOS). Land surveys, crop yield estimation, environmental governance, meteorological early warning and forecasting, as well as comprehensive disaster prevention and mitigation are noted as the main uses of the satellite, according to Chinese state media. The first Gaofen-13 satellite was launched in October 2020, also using a Long March 3B rocket. The pair are thought to be more capable versions of the Gaofen-4 geostationary optical satellite launched in December 2015. Gaofen-4 has a reported ground resolution of 50 meters.
Gaofen-13 (02) heads for GTO atop of a Long March 3B lifting off from Xichang, March 17, 2023. Credit: Ourspace
China also stated earlier in the year that it planned to launch a 20-meter-resolution synthetic aperture radar satellite to geostationary orbit in 2023.
(CHEOS) was approved in 2010 and was initially planned to consist of seven Gaofen satellites and a near space and airborne system and a ground segment, according to China National Space Administration (CNSA) presentations to the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA).
While details have been published of the Gaofen 1 through 7 satellites, those designed Gaofen-8 remain classified, indicating military customers.
China has so far launched four Gaofen-11 satellites from Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center in north China using Long March 4B rockets. Earlier reports indicate these satellites belong to the classified segment of China’s Gaofen series, with the capability to return optical imagery at a resolution of around 10 centimeters.
CHEOS comprise optical, multispectral, hyperspectral and synthetic aperture radar satellites. A CHEOS near space segment comprising airships, air flight platforms, and airborne Earth observation instruments and data processing system was however also included in the plan to augment its capabilities and data collection, though little information has been published on this aspect.
The balloon and other platforms are to carry three types of earth payloads, including optical, laser and synthetic aperture radar (SAR). These were to be capable of providing images with a spatial resolution of better than 0.1 meters, and a spectral resolution of better than 1 nanometer.
Notably this is much higher than the 1 meter spatial resolution intended to be provided by the Gaofen satellites. The balloons would also allow surveillance for longer periods of time than the few minutes it takes a satellite in LEO to pass overhead.
An undeclared Chinese high altitude surveillance balloon was detected in U.S. airspace earlier this year. Reports followed of a variety of high-altitude surveillance balloons in countries across five continents, suggesting balloons have been widely deployed for data collection.
The New York Times reported Feb. 13 that in 2019 an airship was sent around the world, including across North America. That near-space vehicle was, according to sources linked within the story, developed as part of CHEOS.
China sent the Zhongxing-26 communications satellite into orbit Feb. 23, marking the resumption orbital launches following a pause for Chinese New Year. A Long March 3B rocket lifted off at 6:49 a.m. Eastern (1149 UTC) from Xichang, southwest China, successfully sending Zhongxing-26 (ChinaSat-26) into geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC) confirmed launch success within the hour. Zhongxing-26 is based on the DFH-4E satellite bus and uses chemical and electric propulsion. It is China’s first satellite providing more than 100 gigabits per second (Gbps) and was developed by CASC’s China Academy of Space Technology (CAST). CAST states the satellite is equipped with 94 Ka-band user beams. This is 3.5 times more than the 26-beam, 20 Gbps, Dongfanghong-3B-based Zhongxing-16 launched in 2017. That satellite has been supplying connectivity to aviation passengers such as Sichuan Airlines’ Airbus A320 flights using Viasat in-flight connectivity equipment. Operator China Satcom describes the satellite as an important piece of national space infrastructure and helping to meet national requirements for connectivity. Zhongxing-26 will mainly provide broadband access for fixed terminals and aviation in shipbourne users in China and surrounding areas from 125 degrees East in the geostationary belt. The overall cost was 2.3 billion yuan ($333 million) according to a feasibility study.
Liftoff of the Long March 3B carrying the Zhongxing-26 (ChinaSat-26) satellite on Feb. 23, 2023. Credit: CAST
The launch was China’s first since Jan. 15, following which activities paused for Chinese New Year. It is the fifth Long March launch this calendar year, with CASC planning more than 60 launches in 2023. Various Chinese commercial companies plan to add 20 or more launches to the overall figure.
The mission is the first launch of the 56-meter-high Long March 3B in 2023. The three-stage rocket has four boosters and uses a hypergolic mix of hydrazine and dinitrogen tetroxide with a liquid hydrogen-liquid oxygen third stage. The launcher is the workhorse for Chinese launches to GTO. Launching from inland at Xichang, the rocket has been the cause of numerous debris incidents downrange.
The Long March 7A, touted as a greener, new-generation launcher using kerosene-liquid oxygen and launching from the coast at Wenchang, is yet to ramp up its launch rate to replace the aging Long March 3B. It most recently launched a pair of classified satellites Jan. 9.
China’s launch vehicle makers appear to be designing a fully reusable version of the Long March 9 super heavy-lift rocket needed for future megaprojects. The emergence of plans for new reusable methane-liquid oxygen launch vehicles to be ready for 2035 suggests that China is looking to make significant changes to its space transportation plans. China’s government last year signaled approval for the continued development of a super heavy-lift launcher, known as the Long March 9. The long-planned, expendable launcher is planned to be operational by 2030, in time to facilitate Chinese megaprojects including the International Lunar Research Station. The giant rocket will consist of three stages and four side boosters, with the first stage and boosters using a kerosene and liquid oxygen propellant mix. However, a new concept for a fully reusable two-stage launcher has now been presented in a recent public lecture (viewable here) by Long Lehao, a veteran chief designer of the Long March rocket series. The first stage of the 10.6-meter-diameter launcher would be powered by 26 clustered 200-ton-thrust methalox engines. It would be capable of carrying 150 tons of payload to Low Earth orbit, 65 tons to geosynchronous transfer orbit, or 50 tons to trans-lunar injection. Long, a senior official who frequently presented updates on China’s space activities, revealed that the new launches are to be ready by 2035, and likely developed in parallel to the expendable version.
A Long March 5, currently China's largest rocket, launches the Chang'e-5 lunar sample return mission Nov. 23, 2020. Credit: CNSA
The largest variant, apparently including a third stage, would have a length of 110 meters and a takeoff mass of 4,122 tons.
The concepts would be a dramatic departure from both the expendable model of the Long March 9 and a version with a reusable first stage presented last year, with fully reusability now a goal. The frequent change in concepts however also suggests China’s plans are somewhat in flux.
The presentation, made in July, comes shortly ahead of first orbital test flights for the expendable Space Launch System and SpaceX’s fully reusable Starship.
Methane-liquid oxygen offers advantages in performance and reduces issues of soot formation and coking for purposes of reusability. The plans follow the trend of SpaceX, Blue Origin and United Launch Alliance in switching to the fuel.
It also follows a smaller two-stage methane-liquid oxygen launcher concept, apparently drawing on SpaceX’s Starship, presented by Wang Xiaojun, president of the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology (CALT).
The apparent switch to methalox appears sudden. China’s propulsion institutes, under the state-owned conglomerate the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC), have however long been working on methane engines, making a change of plans somewhat feasible.
A smaller five-meter-diameter reusable rocket presented by Long could potentially be intended to replace a number of aging hypergolic rockets, as well as more recent kerosene-fueled Long March rockets which have become operational over the last decade.
Chinese commercial launch companies Landspace and iSpace have been developing methane-liquid oxygen launchers in recent years, possibly with help of military-civil fusion national strategy which facilitates transfer of restricted technologies.
Landspace is set to attempt its first launch on the methalox Zhuque-2 in the near future from Jiuquan spaceport. Competitor iSpace is also preparing to conduct hop tests with a methalox first stage test article for its reusable Hyperbola-2 rocket at Jiuquan. Long March 9 evolution
While various figures have been published, the original, expendable Long March 9 is expected to be around 103 meters long, feature a 10-meter-diameter core and have a mass at liftoff of 4,140 metric tons, and be capable of lifting 140 tons to Low Earth orbit or 50 tons to trans-lunar injection.
Dual nozzle 500 ton-thrust kerosene-liquid oxygen (YF-130) engines will power the first stage and boosters, 220-ton-thrust liquid hydrogen-liquid oxygen staged combustion cycle (YF-90) engines for the second stage, with significant progress already made on both. Vacuum-optimized hydrolox engines would power the third stage.
The reusable first stage version presented in 2021 would switch to a first stage using 16 clustered 360-ton-thrust kerolox engines and no side boosters. 120-ton-thrust hydrolox engines would be used for the second and third stages.
The largest variant of the Long March 9 in Long’s new lecture featuring the fully reusable concepts would have a 10.6-meter-diameter, a length of 110 meters and takeoff mass of 4,122 tons, matching the capabilities of the earlier plans.
A more economical, reusable version of the Long March 9 could be ready to support a proposed space-based solar power program in geostationary orbit.
China is also developing a three-stage heavy-lift rocket designed to be capable of sending Chinese astronauts to the moon. A two-stage version for low Earth orbit could have its first flight in 2026.
A Long March 4B launched the Shijian-06 (05) group of satellites Dec. 9, marking the 400th launch of China’s Long March family of launch vehicles. The Long March 4B lifted off from Site 9401 at the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center at 7:11 p.m. Eastern, rising into a dark blue pre-dawn desert sky. The Shijian-6 (05) satellites, which could be a pair of satellites to join four earlier pairs satellites in the series, with the previous launch occurring in 2010, were developed by the China Academy of Space Technology (CAST) and Aerospace Dongfanghong Satellite Co., Ltd. The satellites will be used for space environment exploration and technology verification tests, according to the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corp., (CASC). No images of the satellites have been published.Western analysis of the series and their roughly 585-kilometer Sun-synchronous orbits suggests Shijian-6 satellites are designed for signals intelligence or electronic intelligence purposes. The Long March 4B was provided by the Shanghai Academy of Spaceflight Technology (SAST) which like CAST is a major CASC subsidiary. The launcher uses hypergolic propellant and is capable of carrying 2,800 kilograms of payload into Sun-synchronous orbit. The mission was China’s 49th orbital launch of 2021, extending a new national record for calendar year activity. The vast majority of launches have been Long March rockets, with additional launches from commercial firms Expace, iSpace and Galactic Energy.
Thursday’s launch was also the 400th Long March rocket launch. The official space industry newspaper China Space News marked the Long March achievement with the term “YYDS,” a Chinese equivalent of the abbreviation of GOAT, or “the greatest of all time.”
The relative speed at which the new milestone was reached illustrates the rapid acceleration of China’s launch rate in recent years.
The first Long March launch took place April 24, 1970. It took until June 2007—or 37 years—to launch the first 100 Long March rockets, when a Long March 3A launched Xinnuo-3. The 200th launch followed seven and a half years later, in December 2014.
The 300th launch was conducted three and a half years later, in March 2019, meaning the latest 100 launches were carried out inside a period of two years and nine months.
The Long March rocket family has been responsible for 92.1 percent of China’s orbital launches in the 51 years since the country’s first launch, sending more than 700 spacecraft into space, with a launch success rate of 96.25 percent, according to CASC.
In comparison, SpaceX, a U.S. private company, has conducted more than 130 launches of its Falcon 9 family of rockets since the first in 2010, suffering one failure and one partial failure, while also developing and establishing first stage reusability.
CASC’s first generation of Long March rockets are hypergolic, with the new Long March 5, 6, 7 and 8 rockets using cryogenic or kerosene fuel. With the demonstration of reusability by SpaceX, CASC is also working on a reusable variant of the Long March 8 and has reusable concepts for its future super heavy-lift launcher.
One major driver of Chinese launches in recent years has been the construction of Beidou, the country’s own Global Navigation Satellite System. China is also building remote sensing and communications space infrastructure which other leading space powers already have on orbit.
In 2014 China also opened a new, coastal launch site at Wenchang to facilitate launches of new large, cryogenic and kerolox rockets for space station and deep space missions.
Chinese space-related activities are also increasing with the emergence and fostering of a commercial space sector since 2014. New spaceports are being constructed to allow for expanded launch activity and remove bottlenecks, including new facilities for sea launches.
The Long March 5B heavy-lift rocket to launch China’s first space station module is soon to be assembled at Wenchang for launch in April. The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corp. (CASC) stated Thursday that the Long March 5B was headed for Wenchang, citing a Feb. 16 press release from the China Manned Space Engineering Office (CMSEO). The 849-metric-ton Long March 5B heavy-lift rocket will launch the roughly 22-metric-ton Tianhe core module from Wenchang Satellite Launch Center following delivery, assembly, integration and testing. Ship tracking indicates that the Xu Yang 16 cargo ship traveled from Tianjin, the northern city in which the Long March 5B components are manufactured, arriving at Qinglan harbor Feb. 16. The vessel is apparently being used instead of the dedicated Yuanwang-21 and -22 cargo ships. China has not announced a timeframe for the mission. However previous Long March 5-series rocket launch campaigns have lasted around two months, indicating launch can be expected around mid-to-late April. The 16.6-meter-long, 4.2-meter-diameter Tianhe core module has already been delivered to Wenchang ready for launch preparations. Tianhe, meaning “harmony of the heavens”, is planned to be inserted directly into a low Earth orbit with an apogee of around 370 kilometers and inclined by 41 degrees.
Components of the Long March 5B (Y2) to launch the Chinese space station core module at a facility in Tianjin. Credit: CMSA
The module will provide regenerative life support and living space for three astronauts as well as propulsion to maintain the orbit of the entire complex.
China plans to construct its space station through 11 launches carried out across 2021 and 2022. These consist of three module launches, four Tianzhou cargo missions and four crewed flights.
The Tianhe core module and docking hub of the Chinese Space Station. Credit: CMSA
Launch of Tianhe is to be followed by a Long March 7 launch of the Tianzhou-2 cargo vessel to dock with, fuel and supply Tianhe. The Long March 7 is also in the final stages of preparation.
The first crewed mission, Shenzhou-12, will then launch from Jiuqun via a Long March 2F hypergolic rocket. CMSEO stated Feb. 16 that the selected crew have entered the intensive training phase ahead of the mission.
CASC states that the 12th and 13th Long March 2F rockets for launching the Shenzhou-12 and Shenzhou-13 missions are ready for action. This suggests two crewed missions in 2021, the first likely during the first half of the year.
The launch of Tianhe will mark the construction phase of the three-module low Earth orbit Chinese space station, a project approved in 1992 as part of a human spaceflight program.
Starting in 2003 China has launched six crewed missions and two testbed space laboratories in order to develop and verify a range of technologies and capabilities for the project.
The most recent was the 2016 month-long Shenzhou-11 mission to Tiangong-2 space lab. The latter was deorbited in 2018, avoiding a repeat of the uncontrolled Tiangong-1 reentry scenario.
In April 2020 carried out a test launch of the Long March 5B, debuting a prototype new generation crew spacecraft for deep space. The new, uncrewed craft was loaded with propellant to simulate a payload similar in mass to a space station module.
Notably the rocket’s large core stage reached orbital velocity and subsequently made an uncontrolled reentry off the west coast of Africa days later. A similar event can thus be expected for the launch of Tianhe and later experiment modules.
The launch of the Tianhe core module was delayed by the 2017 launch failure of the second Long March 5, postponing test launch of the Long March 5B. China is now condensing the space station construction schedule into an intensive two-year period, maintaining the target of completing the Chinese Space Station by the end of 2022.
After completion the CSS will be joined in orbit by the Xuntian optical module, a co-orbiting, Hubble-class space telescope. Xuntian will be capable of docking with the CSS for maintenance and repairs. The space station itself could also be expanded from three to six modules.
CASC is planning to carry out at least 40 launches in what would be a busiest year yet for China. The landing attempt of the Tianwen-1 Mars rover is expected in May-June, amid the Tianhe, Tianzhou and Shenzhou launches.
In its latest research titled "China Space Industry Report," Euroconsult provides in depth analysis of how commercialization is driving both growth and technology advances in the Chinese space sector, with oversubscribed IPOs and a wave of private investment. China Satcom is now the world's highest valued pure satellite operator with a market cap of US$11 billion as of May 2020, while China Satcom parent company China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC) reported record revenues of $37 billion in 2018. With a deep-dive into the structure of the Chinese space industry, the report details the relationships between myriad space organizations and China's complex delineation between commercial and government entities. The Chinese government began to liberalize private investment into the space sector in 2014, and since then more than US$900 million in private funding has been invested. With nearly equal investment from government sources, commercial companies have raised a total of at least US$1.85 billion since 2014. Notably, Euroconsult finds that following a short-term lull in activity corresponding to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Chinese space industry is rebounding strongly, having resumed launches, re-opened manufacturing facilities, and continued to move forward with much-needed reforms. The pandemic has coincided with a drop in funding, with 2020 thus far seeing around RMB 900M of funding raised by Chinese space companies, however this is partly due to 2019 being a historically large year in terms of funding.
"Our overview and analysis of the Chinese space ecosystem provides context and understanding for one of the most opaque markets in the world," said Blaine Curcio, Euroconsult Senior Affiliate Consultant based in Hong Kong.
"The growth of the private sector since 2014 has been astonishing, and there is little to suggest a deceleration in this growth. That being said, the low starting point for the private sector, combined with the sheer size of state-owned incumbents, means that the private sector remains extremely fast-growing but relatively small."
In addition to information on Chinese investment in the space sector, the research provides detailed analysis of five market segments including Earth observation, ground systems, launch services, satellite communications, and satellite manufacturing. It sizes the markets and discusses both government and private companies in each sector, including their business activities and international plans. It also delves into vertical sub-segments such as the national TT&C network, backhaul and trunking demand, and Chinese plans for low-earth orbit (LEO) broadband constellations similar to western concepts such as Starlink.
The report includes an Excel database which organizes hundreds of data points, including funding, supply, demand, and revenue numbers for each of the five market segments. It also provides an up to date analysis of the LEO constellations being developed in China today as well as information on China's NGSO filings with the ITU for Q/V-band, X-band, and S-band spectrum rights.
Key Findings Euroconsult's analysis shows that from 2014 to 2019 there were 319 launches of Chinese manufactured satellites. Of these, 178 were launched in 2018 and 2019, reflecting the recent expansion of China's manufacturing and launch capabilities.
In the launch sector there have been 46 rounds of private investment in Chinese launch companies since 2014, with total funding raised from both private and government sources of roughly US$1 billion. This investment is targeted at commercial launch companies that are developing more than 20 rockets, many using liquid propellants. Of the launch vehicles being developed, at least seven are expected to have a first launch in 2020 or 2021.
"It's important to understand the government policy decisions that are driving industry trends in China," said Steve Bochinger, Chief Operating Officer, Euroconsult. "When the National Development and Reform Commission added satellite internet as one of its "new infrastructures" to be developed, it triggered a flurry of private investment. While the majority of the Chinese space industry is domestic-focused, there is also an increasing emphasis on internationalization, with this expected to accelerate as China rolls out more global space infrastructure."
China has built out significant space infrastructure over the past 5-10 years, including the BeiDou satellite navigation constellation, the Gaofen Earth observation constellation, and coming LEO broadband constellations. It has a clear strategy for internationalizing this infrastructure to provide turnkey service in regions including Eurasia, Africa, and Latin America.
China is targeting a July launch for its ambitious plans for a Mars mission which will include landing a remote-controlled robot on the surface of the red planet, the company in charge of the project has said. Beijing has invested billions of dollars in its space programme in an effort to catch up with its rival the United States and affirm its status as a major world power. The Mars mission is among a number of new space projects China is pursuing, including putting Chinese astronauts on the moon and having a space station by 2022. Beijing had been planning the Mars mission for sometime this year, but China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC) has confirmed it could come as early as July. "This big project is progressing as planned and we are targeting a launch in July," CASC said in a statement issued on Sunday. CASC is the main contractor for China's space programme. Called "Tianwen", the Chinese mission will put a probe into orbit around Mars and land the robotic rover to explore and analyse the surface. It will take several months to cover the roughly 55 million kilometres (31 million miles) distance between Earth and Mars, which is ever-changing due to their planetary orbits. China has already carried out a similar mission to the Moon, and in January 2019 landed a small rover on the dark side of the lunar surface, becoming the first nation to do so.
The US, which has already sent four exploratory vehicles to Mars, intends to launch a fifth this summer. It should arrive around February 2021.
The United Arab Emirates plans to launch the first Arab probe to the Red Planet on July 15 from Japan.
China's first seismo-electromagnetic satellite Zhangheng-1 has obtained fruitful electromagnetic data, according to the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC). The satellite has enabled China to obtain a global geomagnetic map and an ionospheric map with its own intellectual property rights. It has obtained information about global ground artificial sources, magnetic storms and signals of earthquakes above 7 magnitude. It also helps with understanding the coupling mechanisms of the lithosphere, atmosphere and ionosphere. Shen Xuhui, the chief scientist of the satellite, said China is expected to have three electromagnetic satellites in orbit by 2022, offering support for earthquake forecasting as well as space weather monitoring and warning. Developed by DFH Satellite Co., Ltd. under the CASC, the satellite Zhangheng 1 was launched on Feb. 2, 2018. The satellite was named after Zhang Heng, a renowned scholar of the East Han Dynasty (25-220), who pioneered earthquake studies by inventing the first-ever seismoscope in the year 132.
Engineers have successfully tested the propulsion system of China's planned space station lab capsules, a key step in its space station program.Weighing 66 tonnes, the space station will comprise a core module and two lab capsules. The propulsion system will determine whether lab capsules can move in space. Engineers designed 36 engines for the propulsion system with four to adjust the capsules' operation orbit and 32 to adjust flight attitude. Each engine is designed to work for at least 15 years, according to the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC), the main manufacturer of the space station. The engines worked well and passed tests in Shanghai, said the CASC. China is accelerating its timetable for the Tiangong space station, with the Tianhe core capsule expected to be launched in 2020. The station is due for completion around 2022.
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